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<H1>Resolution of an Electron Microscope</H1>
<P align=3Dcenter><A href=3D"http://hypertextbook.com/facts/" =
target=3D_top>The=20
Physics Factbook</A>=E2=84=A2<BR>Edited by Glenn Elert -- Written by his =
students<BR>An=20
educational, <A=20
href=3D'javascript:openSlide("http://hypertextbook.com/fairuse.shtml")'>F=
air=20
Use</A> website</P>
<P align=3Dcenter><A=20
href=3D"http://hypertextbook.com/facts/index-topics.shtml">topic =
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<TABLE cellSpacing=3D2 cellPadding=3D3 width=3D"100%" border=3D3>
  <TBODY>
  <TR bgColor=3D#cccccc>
    <TH align=3Dleft>Bibliographic&nbsp;Entry</TH>
    <TH>Result<BR>(w/surrounding&nbsp;text)</TH>
    <TH>Standardized<BR>Result</TH></TR>
  <TR bgColor=3D#ffffcc>
    <TD>Curtis, Helena. <I>Biology: 5th Edition</I>. New York: Worth, =
1989:=20
    96.</TD>
    <TD align=3Dmiddle>"TEM at present afforts a resolving power of =
about=20
      0.2&nbsp;nm =E2=80=A6. Although the resolving power of the STM is =
only about=20
      10&nbsp;nm, this instrument has become a valuable tool for =
biologists."</TD>
    <TD =
align=3Dmiddle>0.2&nbsp;nm<BR>(TEM)<BR><BR>10&nbsp;nm<BR>(STM)</TD></TR>
  <TR bgColor=3D#ffffcc>
    <TD>Slayter, Elizabeth M. "Electron Microscope." <I>Grolier =
Multimedia=20
      Encyclopedia</I>. Grolier, 1997.</TD>
    <TD align=3Dmiddle>"=E2=80=A6 [TEM] resolutions of 2&nbsp;nm are =
common =E2=80=A6. Although=20
      [STM] resolution is limited to 10&nbsp;nm, readily interpretable =
images of=20
      surface topography emerge."</TD>
    <TD =
align=3Dmiddle>2&nbsp;nm<BR>(TEM)<BR><BR>10&nbsp;nm<BR>(STM)</TD></TR>
  <TR bgColor=3D#ffffcc>
    <TD><I>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Physics</I>. New York: Simon &amp;=20
      Schuster, 1996: 452-454.</TD>
    <TD align=3Dmiddle>"The smallest distance that can be resolved with =
a TEM is=20
      approximately 0.2-0.5&nbsp;nm =E2=80=A6. A typical [STM] =
resolution of several=20
      tenths of a nm can be achieved."</TD>
    <TD=20
      =
align=3Dmiddle>0.2&nbsp;-&nbsp;0.5&nbsp;nm<BR>(TEM)<BR><BR>~&nbsp;0.1&nbs=
p;nm<BR>(STM)</TD></TR>
  <TR bgColor=3D#ffffcc>
    <TD>Kane, Joseph &amp; Morton Sternheim. <I>Physics</I>. New York: =
Wiley,=20
      1978: 620.</TD>
    <TD align=3Dmiddle>"In practice, the resolution of the TEM is =
limited to=20
      about 0.2&nbsp;nm."</TD>
    <TD align=3Dmiddle>0.2&nbsp;nm<BR>(TEM)</TD></TR>
  <TR bgColor=3D#ffffcc>
    <TD>Robertson, Brian. <A =
href=3D"http://www.unl.edu/CMRAcfem/em.htm">What=20
      are Electron Microscopes</A>? Center for Materials Research and =
Analysis.=20
      University of Nebraska at Lincoln.</TD>
    <TD align=3Dmiddle>"Electron Microscopes were developed due to the=20
      limitations of Light Microscopes which are limited by the physics =
of light=20
      to 500x or 1000x magnification and a resolution of=20
    0.2&nbsp;micrometers."</TD>
    <TD align=3Dmiddle>&lt;&nbsp;200&nbsp;nm</TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P>An electron microscope is an instrument that uses electrons instead =
of light=20
for the imaging of objects. The development of the transmission electron =

microscope was based on theoretical work done by Louis de Broglie, who =
found=20
that wavelength is inversely proportional to momentum. In 1926, Hans =
Busch=20
discovered that magnetic fields could act as lenses by causing electron =
beams to=20
converge to a focus. A few years later, Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska made =
the first=20
modern prototype of an electron microscope.</P>
<P>There are two types of electron microscopes: the transmission (TEM) =
and the=20
scanning tunneling (STM) electron microscope. In a TEM, a monochromatic =
beam of=20
electrons is accelerated through a potential of 40 to 100&nbsp;kilovolts =
(kV)=20
and passed through a strong magnetic field that acts as a lens. The =
resolution=20
of a modern TEM is about 0.2&nbsp;nm. This is the typical separation =
between two=20
atoms in a solid. This resolution is 1,000 times greater than a light =
microscope=20
and about 500,000 times greater than that of a human eye. The STM is =
similar to=20
the TEM except for the fact that it causes an electron beam to scan =
rapidly over=20
the surface of the sample and yields an image of the topography of the =
surface.=20
The resolution of a STM is about 10&nbsp;nm. The resolution is limited =
by the=20
width of the exciting electron beam and by the interaction volume of =
electrons=20
in a solid.</P>
<P>Resolution is the finest detail that can be distinguished in an =
image. The=20
resolving power of a microscope is quite different from its =
magnification. You=20
can enlarge a photograph indefinitely using more powerful lenses, but =
the image=20
will blur together and be unreadable. Therefore, increasing the =
magnification=20
will not improve resolution. The minimum separation (<I>d</I>) that can =
be=20
resolved by any kind of a microscope is given by the following =
formula:</P>
<P =
align=3Dcenter><I>d</I>&nbsp;=3D&nbsp;=CE=BB/(2<I>n</I>&nbsp;sin=CE=B8)</=
P>
<P>where <I>n</I> is the refractive index (which is 1 in the vacuum of =
an=20
electron microscope) and =CE=BB is the wavelength. Since resolution and =
<I>d</I> are=20
inversely proportional, this formula suggests that they way to improve=20
resolution is to use shorter wavelengths and media with larger indices =
of=20
refraction. The electron microscope exploits these principles by using =
extremely=20
short wavelengths of accelerated electrons to form high-resolution =
images.</P>
<P>Today, electron microscopy is widely used in metallurgy, biology, =
material=20
science, physics, chemistry, and many other technological fields. It has =
been an=20
integral part in the understanding of the complexities of cellular =
structure,=20
the fine structure of metals and crystalline materials as well as =
numerous other=20
areas of the microscopic world.</P>
<P>Ilya Sherman -- 2000</P>
<TABLE cellSpacing=3D2 cellPadding=3D3 width=3D"100%" border=3D3>
  <TBODY>
  <TR bgColor=3D#cccccc>
    <TH align=3Dleft>Bibliographic&nbsp;Entry</TH>
    <TH>Result<BR>(w/surrounding&nbsp;text)</TH>
    <TH>Standardized<BR>Result</TH></TR>
  <TR bgColor=3D#ffffcc>
    <TD>"Physics&nbsp;Update." <I>Physics&nbsp;Today</I>. =
June&nbsp;2000:=20
9.</TD>
    <TD align=3Dmiddle>"A million-volt field emission transmission =
electron=20
      microscope (FE-TEM) has been built by a team led by Akira Tonomura =
at=20
      Hitachi's Advanced Research Laboratory in collaboration with the =
Japan=20
      Science and Technology Corp =E2=80=A6. [T]he new device can image =
rows of atoms=20
      only half an angstrom apart (thus rivaling scanning tunneling =
microscopes)=20
      and can even take pictures fast enough -- 60 per second -- to make =
movies=20
      of fine gold particles changing their shapes."</TD>
    <TD =
align=3Dmiddle>&lt;&nbsp;0.05&nbsp;nm<BR>(FE-TEM)</TD></TR></TBODY></TABL=
E>
<P>Editor's Supplement -- 2000</P>
<P>
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